Become Legendary Essay

The Kobe and Lebron comparison is now probably the biggest and most controversial talk in today’s sports news. Lebron can go to the hoop with authority, while Kobe is a sleek and flashy all around shooter. Although being two of the best players in the world they are very different in the ways they play the game of basketball. Though both Kobe and Lebron went to the NBA straight out of high school, and being two of the league’s best all around players who are lethal threats which must take an extraordinary game plan to defend. With the association and contrast of the two legends, whether it is by trophies or championship titles, or all around stat freaks, these will be main contributing factors in crowning the best. Kobe Bryant is arguably one of the league’s best all around players of all time. He can drive, shoot, and his finish is one of a kind. His defense is shut down and plays with fouls as a defensive mechanism. Not only is he top class on the floor, but on the free throw line as well. Also being one of the league’s most consistent free throw shooters since entering the NBA. Kobe plays the game as if he invented it; he is one of the world’s most respected and popular players. Kobe has five NBA championships and is a twelve time NBA all star. Kobe Bryant age thirty-two is one of the most decorated players in the history of the NBA, and is a future hall -of -famer. Kobe also has had an unheard of eighty-one points in a single game. Kobe’s down side is that he is not consistently aggressive or hard going to the boards (getting rebounds or dunking). With all that said I feel like Kobe Bryant will ever be remembered as one of the elite players to ever play in the NB A. Lebron James aka â€Å"King James† is a one of a kind, straight out of high school player who took on the league with a head full of steam. One of the most athletic and young freaks the NBA has probably ever seen. He has matured from a young kid to a man in a matter of seasons, while adding a different edge to his game every year. Lebron who is seven years younger than Kobe is a seven time NBA all star, but has yet to win a single NBA championship. Coming out of high school Lebron was the first pick out of the first round  out of the NBA draft. Though Lebron the young hot shot he is seems to receive a lot of criticism because of the recent change in location to south beach. Even though Lebron is such an amazing player, the thing that hurts him the most is his shooting at times. Lebron isn’t just a basketball player; he’s a business man as well with endorsements from companies such as Nike and Sprite. Forbes magazine ranked James as the second most influential athletes in the past decade. This new kid on the block has produced points and shows what he can do every night; he puts points on the board and fans in the stands. Both of these iconic athletes are incredibly amazing in all their unique ways, whether on or off the court. Together they have won two gold medals in the Olympics for the United States. They are both the league’s present day top players who decided that college wasn’t for them. Lebron and Kobe were both first round picks in the NBA draft and the number one ranked player coming out of high school. They both are astonishingly efficient in every aspect of the offensive or defensive side of the ball. Blocking shots and playing hard noised defense is what they do best. With a shot and release like no other they are quick scorers and know how to score from anywhere and in any situation on the floor. They both bring more to the game than just skill but as leaders vocally and emotionally on their teams. Not only are they the leaders on their teams, but are the faces for basketball and the NBA everywhere in the world. In my opinion this is not even that close. James has better numbers across almost every statistical category. In clutch situations such as fourth quarter or overtime, less than five minutes left, neither team ahead by more than five points. Bryant actually has a higher field goal percentage and three-point percentage as well as more rebounds and assists per 48 minutes. James is a superior slasher, finisher, and defender as well as being stronger and more athletic. Bryant may have a killer instinct, but James has a mean streak of his own. With his unbelievable three point plays and up tempo offense. When all is said and done, Lebron James may go down as a better NBA basketball player than Kobe Bryant, but who knows, these guys are neck and neck.

A Bumpy Road for Toyota

Just-in-time philosophy, focused on consistent quality improvement, propelled Toyota to become a leading global car manufacturer. However, its global expansion and limited number of experts relative to its global operations weakened this focus in North America.While Toyota remains a competitive automobile manufacturer, it experienced recurring periods of decline in its quality standing. Now, it has to strengthen its JIT philosophy.Toyota’s focus on quality is consistent with the just-in-time philosophy. JIT means eradicating or decreasing to the least possible level wastage in the production process. By doing so, the company can pursue a range of outcomes including decrease in inventory, cost reduction, error minimization, and high quality. Quality is an outcome of implementing JIT while the focus on quality is a path to implementing JIT.Toyota’s achievement of a high quality standing during its peak periods is a testament to the focus on quality as a possible means of implementing JIT (Bozarth and Handfield 547). It is also possible to implement JIT without a strong quality focus. Reducing inventory, minimizing cost and eradicating error could also be paths in implementing JIT. However, these paths including quality are interrelated and reinforcing so that the focus on other paths still require the achievement of a certain level of quality especially in minimizing errors and reducing costs.The quality focus of Toyota worked because of its coordinators. These coordinators are mid-level managers in the manufacturing plants in Japan with decades of experience of the car company’s JIT philosophy called Toyota Production System (TPS) (Bozarth and Handfield 546).These coordinators played a key role in promoting TPS to Toyota’s employees because these oriented and trained the shop-floor managers and workers in the American manufacturing plant on ways of addressing actual issues emerging from the production line (547).This practical approac h encouraged innovativeness and responsiveness to lower wastage. Coordinators are difficult to replicate because their deep knowledge emerged from decades of experience. Time to develop coordinators is a luxury given the current need of Toyota to expand and boost production to meet growing demand.Hajime Oba differentiated Toyota’s TPS with the JIT strategy of the three automobile manufacturers in Detroit. He claimed that the JIT approach in Detroit is superficial since the intention was only to reduce inventory without really getting into the essence of JIT (Bozarth and Handfield 547).There is some truth to this. American car manufacturers operate more through textbook theories of efficiency, which implies using the least possible input in maximizing output, and with formality or impersonal management highlighting distinctions in task assignments, processes and systems. This necessarily leads to a different JIT approach relative to the Japanese perspective of JIT.The tenet â €˜haste makes waste’ captures the situation in Toyota’s Georgetown plant. In the 1990s, Toyota received recognition for high quality through automobile quality surveys (Bozarth and Handfield 547). Through the work of its coordinators, the Georgetown plant even received recognition as the second best in terms of the quality of cars manufactured in the plant (547). This propelled sales of Toyota cars in North America.The spike in demand pushed the plant to speed up production until it came to a point when quality suffered. With a limited number of coordinators for a large plant and language barriers, there was movement away from the TPS (547).In releasing the Camry, the company received many quality complaints from customers leading to the plummeting of its quality standing (548). Toyota is attempting to reassert the TPS in its Georgetown plant by recruiting a Japanese TPS expert to motivate middle managers to work the floor again.Toyota’s quality focused TPS h as worked and it still works. However, the automobile manufacturer needs to adjust implementation to consider its growth and expansion. Toyota needs to have sufficient coordinators and this time more American coordinators for the North American plant trained in its quality-based JIT philosophy.Work CitedBozarth, Cecil, and Robert Handfield. Introduction to Operations and Supply Chain  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Management. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2007.   

Internet Advertising

What is internet ad? Internet advertising is a way of marketing services or products on the World Wide Web. This can be done through search engine optimization, banner ads, affiliate marketing, email marketing, SEM marketing and Web 2. 0 strategies. It is also known as Internet marketing, eMarketing, web marketing and online marketing. Internet advertising allows a product or service to quickly reach a global audience. A major advantage is that Internet advertising is usually far cheaper than advertising through more traditional means such as newspapers, radio or television.To better answer the question, â€Å"What is Internet advertising? †, we need to first look at all the ways which it can take place. +) Affiliate Marketing – This occurs when one website runs ads for another (usually larger) site. If a visitor to the site clicks on the ad, he’ll be taken to the other site to make a purchase. If a transaction occurs, the site hosting the ad (known as an affilia te) will receive a commission on the sale. This allows smaller sites to make money by associating with larger sites such as Netflix, AllPosters and Amazon. +) Lead-based Websites – Sales leads are generated from a company’s website.The company then follows up (usually via phone) in order to make a sale. +) E-commerce – The direct sale of goods to a consumer. Amazon would be an example of an online company that employs the e-commerce method. +) Publishing – A website sells advertising space, much in the same way that a newspaper or magazine would do so. Geo Marketing Internet advertising has advanced so far that online businesses can even designate ads to appear based on the user’s state, city, zip code or IP address. This is known as geo marketing (or geo targeting).In the distant future, one has to wonder if this form of marketing won’t be tailored specifically to the person logging on to the Internet. In some ways, this is already a realit y, as many advertisements are designed to appear based on the keywords entered by the user into a search engine. Specific Clientele So what is Internet advertising? and how does internet advertising work? Well, besides allowing a company to specifically target a user based on search engine phrases and geographical location, Internet advertising can also allow a business to focus on a specific clientele. For example, let’s ay you own a company which sells tents. If you run a print or television advertisement, your message will be viewed by many people who have no interest in your product. With the Internet, however, you can place ads on sites specifically geared towards your potential clients. Sites involving camping or the outdoors allow you to directly target those who might need to buy a tent. While it doesn’t guarantee a sale, Internet advertising does allow you to narrow your focus and get the most for your advertising dollar. Continued Growth Internet advertising can be tracked and tested in ways unavailable to regular methods of advertising.This allows the advertiser to immediately know what works and what doesn’t. For this reason, Internet advertising is the faster growing form of marketing. Disadvantage of Internet Marketing Many consumers like to be able to physically touch or see a product before they buy it. Others may have a dial-up connection and be unable to view all available advertising. Both of these are disadvantages of Internet marketing, although they will most likely disappear in the coming decades. Security is also a concern for many consumers. Everyone has heard horror stories about people having their identities stolen after making a purchase on the Internet.While most of these stories are exaggerated, all major Internet businesses have responded by installing state-of-the-art encryption systems to protect sensitive customer information. Summary of Internet Advertising What is Internet advertising? It’s a way for retailers to advertise products and services online. Ads can target people with particular hobbies or interests, or they can even focus on customers in a specific country or state. The success of an Internet advertising campaign is easier to track, and numerous methods are available to businesses.

Herd Health Surveillance And Management Health Essay

In 1907, the ‘British Royal Commission ‘ proved that childrens were at hazard from bovine TB ( 1 ) . Today this Zoonotic bTB ( caused by M. bovis ) is present worldwide. Tuberculosis, pulmonary tuberculosis, besides known as ‘Scrofula ‘ , is a menace to public wellness, domestic farm animal, wildlife, and besides to merchandise industry. The position of this disease as a re-emerging zoonotic disease is today of great concern ( 4 ) . The first instance of bovid infection from adult male to cattle was reported by Magnusson in 1937 ( 2, 3 ) . Bovine TB is now classified by OIE as a â€Å" List B † disease. States following the FAO and the OIE recommendation, seek to use appropriate and effectual control measures to halt the visual aspect of new instances of TB ( incidence ) ( 5, 23 ) . This can be hard to accomplish because the infective dosage could be a really low sum of B ( 22 ) .Low incidenceAs ‘incidence ‘ we understand the sum of new instances happening in a defined period of clip. The chance of developing a specific disease during a specified period of clip is the incidence rate. Incidence rate = new instances in specified period of clip ten factor ( 100,1000aˆÂ ¦ ) Entire population at hazard during the period ‘Low incidence ‘ ( LI ) occurs when new instances emerge in a lower and slower rate than before within a period of clip in the targeted population. Is this low incidence step existent and important adequate to province that bTB is under control and even taking to a possible obliteration? The reply is likely, No. Low incidence might non reflect the existent state of affairs on a national degree. Low incidence of bTB can propose that the disease is by and large non distributing fast, but has a changeless, slow tendency within the cattle population. The incidence could be higher in some portion of the state and really low in others. We need the ‘prevalence ‘ , in order to better understand how TB in a population could be quantified. ‘Prevalence ‘ is the entire figure of bing instances happening at one peculiar clip. : Prevalence = chronic conditions Diseases – count the entire figure of disease persons ‘Prevalence rate'A is the sum of the population who has a disease at a given clip. Prevalence rate = bing instances at the specified point of clip x factor Entire population at hazard during the period ( 15 ) In livestock the disease is profoundly predisposed by farming and managerial factors which are of highest importance. Environmental factors such as carnal carrying denseness, motion between groups, quarantine, the new stock, environmental fortunes ( humidness, temperature, air current, rain seasons ) , lodging, bedclothes, lacrimation, airing, sanitation and nutrient balance besides play critical portion. In diseases outbreaks in animate being groups, usually both clinical and sub clinical instances exist in the group ( Iceberg Concept ) . In those endemic diseases, more of the infections in a group have a sub clinical ( soundless ) presentation ( see figure ) . It is cardinal to place the status in the group in inquiry or the instance categorization ( negative, exposed, fishy, or reactor ) . ( 24 ) There is a group of states like Australia ( 30,31 ) , Poland and others, which has achieved free bTB position using strict methods of surveillance monitoring and control ( 23,41, Apx 1 ) . Others such as EEUU ( 27, 28, 29 ) and Spain, show by and large the moderate but uninterrupted decline of the disease ( 36 ) . Spain has improved the incidence rate. There has besides been a alteration in the prevalence rate of bTB among the carnal population ( 25 ) . This disease can be endemic. Prevalence / Incidence, of b.TB during 1986 – 2006 in Spain. PROGRAMA NACIONAL DE ERRADICACION DE TUBERCULOSIS BOVINA. ANOS 2008-2010.. ( 25 )Spain – a low incidence stateIn Spain the prevalence is higher in beef herds and engendering contending bulls ‘ herds than in dairy herds, which may be due to production related differences between these types of herds. Beef herds are kept under more extended conditions, which allow contacts with other herds and wildlife, via communal grazing land ( 4 ) . BTB presence in the wildlife species had been proven as a beginning of infection for house servants animate beings and a threat to endangered species ( 6,8 ) . It seems that species sharing the same ecosystems are conveying the disease. M. bovis has besides been detected in carcases of cervid, hare, wild Sus scrofa, Iberian lynx and fox found in studies of wildlife killed in national Parkss and private estates in cardinal, southern and west of the Iberian Peninsula ( 7, 4 ) . Figure1. Main bovid TB hazard factors classified into animate being, herd and region/country degrees. Worldwide bovine TB hazard factors Vet. Res. ( 2009 ) 40:50aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦.. ( 4 ) Spain has a control programme in topographic point, at national and regional degree. Harmonizing to their informations about 97 % of the herds are free of bovine TB ( bTB ) ( 18 ) .This was achieved by the application of government trials and slaughter at the national degree. In the Central organisation there is the Ministry of environmental, rural and sea. On the regional degree there are official veterinary services with provincial and territory central offices ( 20,21 ) . REPORT OF THE â€Å" BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS † SUB-GROUP TASK FORCE, Spain, 14-15 November 2007 ( 18 ) Spain as a member province of the EU Commission has its ain Sub-group Task Force, which report back on the advancement of its bTB obliteration programme ( 18 ) . In order to command and forestall eruptions of bTB assorted signifiers of surveillance programmes have been established and information gathered and utilised from findings of these.What is disease surveillance?â€Å" Epidemiologic surveillance is defined as an experimental method based on uninterrupted entering to follow wellness position or hazard factors in a defined population, and peculiarly to observe the visual aspect of pathological procedures and analyze their development over clip and in infinite, with a position to following appropriate control measures â€Å" ( 19 ; Toma et al. , 1991 ) . Surveillance is defined as a ‘mechanism applied to roll up and construe informations on the wellness of carnal population, to accurately depict their wellness position with regard to specific diseases of concern ‘ ( 28 ) . The term surveillance is used for the acknowledgment of new or alien diseases, and monitoring is aimed at observing additions in established infection degrees that may signal the return of a disease eruption. Surveillance programmes are frequently used to integrate both surveillance and monitoring activities ( MOSS ) ( 28 ) .There are really clear definitions in the study of the ISVEE conference, held in Durban. ( 2009 ) Epidemiologic surveillance signifiers portion of descriptive epidemiology because it aims to supply a dependable image of the epidemiological state of affairs sing one or more diseases ( 13 ) . The construct of disease surveillance is shown in Figure 1. ( 26 ) .Surveillance methodsObligatory surveillance: Bovine TB is a countrywide programme disease which requires the declaration of all suspected bTB instances by husbandmans, veterinaries, abattoirs inspectors, and everybody in contact with farm animal. Everyday surveillance: Name inactive surveillance, besides known as ‘scanning ‘ surveillance, is an ongoing observation of the prevailing disease profile of a susceptible population. With the information from this information we can observe any unnatural alterations or emerging diseases and obtain a general image of the disease state of affairs. Active surveillance: Besides called tailored programmes, marks a specific disease or status within a defined population. The presence of the disease can be measured or its absence verified. At first a clear instance definition must be developed. Surveillance is so carried out in structured population-based reviews ( methodical proving at slaughter, random studies, scrutinies for infection in non-symptoms animate beings including wildlife ) or in structured mark surveillance actions ( disease coverage, aiming proving, ante-mortem reviews, research lab probes, lookout elements, field records, farm animal ‘s herds, wildlife disease statistics ) . â€Å" Effectives controls requires an apprehension of the epidemiology of a diseases, including its infections kineticss within house servants every bit good as wildlife populations † ( 32 chapter 8, p. 363 ) .Datas elementsDatas are obtained from different beginnings: Findingss in butcheries, in the field, in research research labs, menagerie, ferine animate being keepers, private veterinary patterns and from province veterinary surveillance. There are good definitions in the web of USDA. This site provides wide information on animate being health/disease countries ( 40 ) We can specify the informations by the event under surveillance. The event and the population at hazard ( numerator/denominator ) , have to be mensurable. Then we need to place the beginnings and the information suppliers, based in the appropriated nose count to obtain a existent position of the disease. Data aggregation is a squad undertaking, aggregators and suppliers and everybody else involved participate to accomplish the aims. It is based on hazard appraisal. To be good processs must be focused, systematic, efficient, dependable and economical. The end is to entree concealed pockets of an carnal population, to avoid uncontrolled state of affairss in the hereafter. The chief end here is the obliteration the bTB, and to derive the position of freedom of the disease. In disease surveillance, compulsory and voluntary presentments are common beginnings for informations aggregation. In distant countries with hapless substructure participatory assessments can be a valuable beginning of information. Labs play an of import portion for the proviso of valuable and dependable informations. An active and full functional diagnostic research lab service is hence cardinal for any surveillance activity. Analysis of information is besides performed by the research labs. Here we find two constructs to see, first esthesia, 2nd feasibleness. The threshold of esthesia must be the same in the full trial to hold consistence in the analytical procedure ; the targeted surveillance must be realistic and possible to execute.Once the information is validated it is fed into a centralized database for the entree and distribution to all stakeholders, usually by via an internet interface. The result must be clearly accessible for all parts involved. The usage of epidemiological informations can supply the rating of the disease and its effects. The cyberspace has become an of import tool for the decentralization of informations entry. Appropriate analysis of informations provides a good planetary representation of the state of affairs ( 11,14 ) . Geographic information systems GIS are used to back up this procedure ( 16 ) .Aims of national surveillanceTerbium is a notifiable disease worldwide. The OIE provides recommendations in its ‘Terrestrial Animal Health Code ‘ and all facets of surveillance are addressed and recommendations given to follow ( 17 ) .The purpose is to use a national surveillance, monitoring and control system which will help the obliteration of the disease. The chief aims for a national surveillance should be: To gauge the size of the job within the domestic and wildlife carnal population. To observe eruptions in animate beings both farmed and in wildlife population, monitor the class of such eruptions and measure the impact. To place bovid TB in the instance that it is brought to the state. To hold preventative controls and obliteration steps in topographic point on defined carnal populations to mensurate promotion and efficaciousness in the obliteration plan. To hold the capacity to verify disease freedom or low threshold of hazard for trading aims.DecisionBTB is a life endangering disease that affects animate beings and worlds likewise. Since its find attempts have been made to track it, to handle the disease and to command its spread with the purpose to finally eliminate it. Despite these attempts bTB is re- looking in an alarming manner amongst animate beings and worlds. Surveillance has become a cardinal component to avoid, proctor and halt the spread of the disease. Some states have been successful in cut downing and keeping its spread, or even eliminating it through effectual surveillance of their house servants and wildlife carnal population. The job is complex, broad stretch and clip consuming. It involves establishments, the husbandmans, the veterinarian services, the regional and governmental administrations ; even environmental factors play an of import portion. There is a demand to organize, on a regional degree every bit much as on a national one. Exchange of information and communicating is needfully combined to guarantee that information is processed and evaluated right, seasonably and used suitably ( 37 ) . Surveillance and effectual control programmes for bTB, adapted to the demands of each state and part, should be implemented and supported by regional, governmental and international organic structures, in a co-ordinated mode. Developing states frequently lack of the necessary installations, and hence need extra support from the developed universe to help their obliteration of this disease. ( 37 ) Epidemiologic Surveillance Systems

Abstracts 4 Articles Decision Making

Reading 1. 3 Jackall, R. (1988) Theories of decision-making process deliver to managers many essential tools such as risk and cost/benefits analysis, etc. which in tern routinizes administration. These tools cannot be used appropriately to manage of incalculable entities. The functional rationality approach is when activities precisely planned and estimated to reach some goal. This method is unlikely to be used by top managers because another important factors are involved such as ego or personal altitude.If there is no special procedure for a particular problem, manager should focus on how to turn a situation into the right way in accordance with expectations from their boss. Some managerial people cannot make their own judgments. Instead, they are looking up and looking around for someone else’s opinion and finally they rely on it because of personal fears or inexperience. Another example of it is the mid-level decision-making paralysis in many American companies when a mana ger is trying to avoid of making a decision. In the case of inevitable decision, he or she would engage as many colleagues as possible for self-protection.Many examples of recent administrative and economic problems within American companies have showed the tendency that managers are oriented to the short-term period when making decisions. This is due to the fact that MBA programs provide tools which are focuses mostly on a short-term attitude. The second reason would be that managers are under pressure for annual, quarterly, monthly and daily results and these factors push they out of thinking about the future, even though they realise that today’s minor difficulties could be tomorrow’s big crises.Managers are also aware of blame time and when things go wrong it is necessary to be protected from consequences. This is the reason why they gravitate towards this fear being punished rather than reflecting critically. Bureaucracy disrupts working processes into parts and t he results of the work therefore disconnected with the decisions, which had been made. Manager’s productivity depends on the position within management circle or their supervisors. There is no codes or systems for tracking personal responsibilities to be established.To be successful manager means to move quickly within the levels of managerial hierarchy. It protects from going into problems too deeply at every level. Example I worked for four years as an instrument engineer in the Natural gas industry in Russia. I was involved into the decision making process associated with planning resources and finances for further projects and discussions about engineering-related difficulties. Firstly, when the question was complicated and involves financial resources, I checked the parameters of equipment many times and sent the results to my boss.When I received the confirmation from him, I printed it out and managed the necessary signatures on it. I did not want to be responsible for any inconvenience because my boss has to carry out this kind of responsibility. It was extremely important for me as a lower-level manager to have the document that proves that all things are done in time and approved by middle-level manager. In case of inconveniences such as the late commissioning phase of facilities I showed the documents that all the steps were completed by me on time. Reading 4. 2 Â  Reason, J. (1990)The general view on accident’s causes within complex technological systems includes theoretical framework which is not only provides the data on how dangerous factors could be combined themselves, but also where and how to predict these tendencies and take necessary measures beforehand. There are many elements of production, which are also involved into accident causation. Fallible high-level manager’s decisions are a major contributing factor to an increase in risk, followed by the lack of line management, which in turn causes dangerous preconditions and unsafe acts (intended and unintended).The latter are based on human’s psychological characteristics and conditions and are described as a combination of both potential hazards and errors, which could cause injury or damage. Likewise, a trajectory of an opportunity includes all these factors plus safeguards and productive events. Each of these has a window of opportunity in terms of an accident incidence. Therefore damage is highly possible when this trajectory is crossing all the windows at all the stages of production. The safe operation control consists of two features – feedback and response.The theory points out that the most successful approach to manage the safety is by taken into consideration the failure types rather than the failure tokens. According to Westrum (1988) there are three groups of auctions – denial, repair and reform. The successful organization is taken actions in responding to safely data from the reform (bottom level). The fundament al distribution error relates to a personal incompetence of employee while on the other hand the fundamental surprise error is the situation when personal observation differs to a reality.Thus, taken into consideration these terms and experience from the past major accidents such as Chernobyl, the nature of a malfunction has to be considered not only as pure technical but also as socio-technical. The people’s contribution to accidents is dominating the machine failure risk. Example I investigated many serious accidents related to the natural gas transportation process. For instance, one emergency stop of the 3. 2-megawatt gas turbine was caused by the malfunction of a frequency meter. After an analysis of reports I concluded that technical maintenance of this device was conducted improperly.A responsible worker forgot to finish one procedure related to the metrology accuracy of this piece of equipment. Another example is when other gas turbine was stopped by alarm during norm al working cycle. The reason for that was unplanned and uncoordinated upgrade of its automatic control system (ACS). From my point of view, the modern technology is very reliable and ACS is highly faultness but social factors as well as poor decision making are of the major reasons for emergency situations. For instance, social factors in Russia are included a low salary and the lack of a proper education. Reading 6. Beach (1993) A descriptive Image theory focuses on people’s individual decisions rather than group ones, and it is directly opposite to prescriptive classical theory of making decisions. There are also three decision-related images (structures), which have to be possessed by a decision maker. The value image is based on personal principles, behavior and beliefs. These are the source for generating goals. Thus, the ultimate criteria for this is when the decision maker consider the values to be relevant. Therefore potential goals and actions, if they are inconsiste nt with the relevant principles, will be refused.The second image, which is called the trajectory image, includes potential goals, which have to be set and the third one, the strategic image, focuses on actions and plans that have to be performed for achieving targets. The important parts of the third image are tactic and forecast, which would be a crucial factors for monitoring a realisation progress of a particular goal. Decision-making process consists of two types of decisions such as adoption and progress which include the implementation of the compatibility and profitability tests.The compatibility test is based on both types of decisions and compares candidates to three images, whereas in contrast the profitability test relates to the adoption decision only and uses the outcome after performing the compatibility test. For instance, the compatibility test selects few candidates, who successfully crossed through a selection criteria and the profitability test therefore chooses the best candidate from the previous sorting. Another important part of the Image theory is the process of framing decisions which is the action when the goal is identified and the plan is alled back if one exists. The data from the practical research suggests that it is unlikely that the decision maker tend to change the selection criteria without changes in principles, goals and plans. Example I was involved into the process of interviewing new workers within the Natural gas industry. I had to employ personnel with sufficient technical knowledge and skills because they have to work within hazardous areas and on potentially dangerous equipment. As a team leader I was hoping to find highly qualified workers with extensive experience for an average amount of salary.After performing several meetings and consultations with potential staff within this salary category I concluded that no one was able to pass the criteria and possess theoretical knowledge and practical achievements from p revious work experience. Because of that I decided to change the working images by changing the criteria. Therefore, I focused on workers who possess theoretical knowledge with engineering ideas in complex. Although they did not have extensive experience, they satisfied basic criteria and were able to perform tasks within their role (maintenance and repair).And after this correction of principles I recruited staff for my team successfully. Reading 7. 3Â  Janis (1971) Groupthink is a way of thinking when members behave with a high level of concurrence and tend to adopt a soft line of criticism on colleague’s ideas or even on every critical issue. This is why they make inhumane decisions easily with serious consequences such as the huge number of people’s deaths. The more cohesive the group, the more the risk that the decision will be proposed without the deep analysis of other choices.There are eight major symptoms of groupthink such as invulnerability, irrationality, ignorance of moral principles, stereotyped and unrealistic positions, group pressure against any critical views, member’s self-censorship, unanimity tendency within a group and the mind guard which is to protect the decision from any kind of the feedback. These indicators are typical for a bad decision making process which in tern may results the inhumane decision with serious consequences. Several steps could be adopted to prevent any group from group thinking.In this case criticism should be accepted not only by members but also by a leader. Wide range of alternatives should also be taken into account as possible options. In a case of vital decisions several groups with different leaders should be established to work on the same problem. Before the final decision is made each member should discuss considerations in its unit of organisation and then provide a final response to the group. An outside expert should be invited to all meetings. One decision-maker within the group should criticise a position of the majority.In the case of consensus the group should organise the final meeting for listening and discussing any doubts against the final decision. Although these actions have also drawbacks. For instance, when growing crisis requests an immediate solution there is no time for discussions and implementing many steps for decision making. Another example might be that the risk of the leakage of vital information would significantly increases when outside specialists are involved. All in all, it seems to be clear that top priority should be given in the prevention of any policymaking unit from the group thinking.Behavioral scientists should also be involved into these processes. Example During my work in Russia a groupthink was played a crucial role because of many factors. Firstly, my colleagues were really close to each other and the company’s social policy was developed for this purpose. Therefore, we spent some days playing games and sports altogether. This resulted in the number of small close-connected teams within the group. Another point is that my boss had a top role during all the process of discussion. Therefore, I had een many examples of bad decision-making. For instance, the only criticism from experienced and old colleagues was taken into account despite obvious things that were given by young professionals. Another factor is that the small teams did know how to play games within this environment and how to speculate. From my point of view, taking into consideration the long-term period, most of the final decisions were satisfactory but insufficient. It means that the projects were performed according to the rules and practices within timelines.But it can be clearly seen that due to the lack of criticism, for example, the total cost of the projects was increased. This way if the rules and steps of good decision practice were implemented, the cost and efficiency would significantly increase. Reading 8. 2Â  C allon (1987) The development of the technology has been explained by many social scientists using different available methods but they have not taken into account the point that the issue of the technology itself can also be represented as a sociological tool for an analysis. This also leads to the changes in understanding the dynamics of technology.There are two sociological views on the dynamic of consumption, which were developed by sociologists Touraine and Bourdieu. Touraine showed that French consumers’ behavior mostly dictated by large monopolies and industry, whereas in contrast Bourdieu pointed out that competition between social classes within French society taken the first place in terms of consumption of goods and services. Therefore these theories were shown by battle between engineers of two powerful French companies in the early 1970s: Electricite de France (EDF) and Renault.Despite the fact that both of them successfully proposed the concept of an electric car (VEL), the EDF’s theory failed because of unsolved technological difficulties related to the area of science and economy of the VEL, but the Renault did survive in the market because it focuses on not only the technological factors but also on rational views. This is the controversial result, because from the sociological point of view Renault’ specialists won this battle by a chance nor by implementing genius technological ideas.This experience of engineers-sociologists is possible to use as a new methodological tool for exploring large sections of society as well as researching within the value of role of social movements in the progress of consumption. There is also a helpful tool which is named the actor network. It is the case when company’s technological strategy supported by many sections of society. It describes the dynamics of society in completely different way without using sociological explanations.Firstly, in the case of implications of radical inn ovations within a technological sector engineers must mix technical and scientific analysis with sociology. Secondly, the actors network approach is efficient because it takes into account outside factors, which are related to common concepts of systems. Example I was responsible for implementing the concept of using compressed natural gas (CNG) as fuel for private cars and municipal buses instead of regular petrol. I was focused on the public transport such as buses because of the potential reduction of pollutions as well as the decrease of the total cost of fuel consumption.Moreover, it was easier to install the necessary equipment on buses because the government agreed to subsidise the cost of these modifications. Whereas in contrast I concluded that private car owners would not agree with this idea because the Siberian region in Russia is a large area and the number of CNG filing stations was limited to only 7. Thus, it was clear for me that using CNG fuel people could not trave l between major cities which is crucial factor. This approach was based on social behavior of people and their habits. Therefore, the main target for our new policy was a municipal transport within major cities.

Paradise Lost Essay

Paradise Lost is divided into twelve books. In Book I Milton explains the theme of his work, man’s disobedience to God, his expulsion from Heaven and the story of the rebel angels sent to Hell. In Book II the angels meet in council to decide what they will do. In Book III God makes a speech on man’s freedom to choose between good and evil. In Book IV Satan observes the happiness of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. In Book V God sends Raphael to warn Adam. In Book VI the war in Heaven in described. Book VII and VIII tell the story of the creation of the Earth and the universe. In Book IX Satan persuades Adam and Eve to taste the forbidden fruit. In Book X God’s Son pronounces the sentence of expulsion. In the last two books Adam and Eve abandon paradise. Paradise Lost is an epic poem. Milton chose the epic genre because of the greatness of the subject. He follows the typical epic conventions in his masterpiece, such as the opening with the statement of the theme. This epic takes place in the universe, in Heaven, Hell and Eden. The main characters, God, Satan, Christ, Man and the fallen angels remind the warriors and heroes of the classical epic, even though they are more philosophical heroes. Milton knew the Copernican cosmology but he based the universe of Paradise Lost on the traditional Ptolemaic system because he thought that this conception was fixed in the minds of the people and it had limits within which it was easier for him to work. In Milton’s Heaven God created the Earth, fixed in the centre of the Universe, and he put his life and thoughts in the natural world so that the external reality reflects the divine soul. In Paradise Lost evil and good are opposed. However, Satan has many characteristics of the epic hero, courage, leadership, initiative. Milton has sympathy for his Satan because he himself was a rebel against the political and religious authority. Both Milton and Dante said that their works had divine inspiration but they had contrasting ideas about Satan’s physical appearance and meaning. Dante’s Satan becomes a means of punishment and it resembles a mythic monster, with wings and three heads. Milton’s Satan is a symbol of God’s justice and it takes several forms, first it is a fallen angel, then it has an inhuman form and finally he becomes a snake. The style of the poem is elevated, the poet used a new kind of magnificent blank-verse.

Siting a Theatre based on the Findings Research Paper

Siting a Theatre based on the Findings - Research Paper Example In specific, three communities provided the basis upon which the information was gathered. Target groups within these communities were families as a basic unit of a society. This unit was considered based on the socio-cultural trends the three communities seemed to have in common. Research Methodology The research process involved data collection, techniques using various tools which included, the use of interviews, the use of questionnaires, visiting sites during the data collection process. These techniques were blinded by the use of both the structured as well as non-structures sub-categories, giving validity to the information collection process. The use of Questionnaires The questionnaire was a method that was administered to respondents in a user-specific form. It slotted for the three communities in question and was used to collect numerical data. This method was fundamental in the sense that it addressed the issue of time and precision. Because the information needed was not to be treated as crucially confidential, the questionnaire provided the platform where respondents could confidently give their honest opinion about the intended data. This also helped to focus this process on objectivity. The Use of Interviews During the data collection phase, there was also involved in the process, one on one encounter with the respondents. This form of data retrieval was to ascertain the validity of the content of questionnaires. In other words, the two processes in data collection were intended to run concurrently. As this information was sociologically retrieved, there was a need to justify the validity and precision standards of the information collected. Visits to Sites The various communities involved; communities A, B, and C, were those in the immediate vicinities of study sites, as to the appropriate location for the establishment of the theatre. In this regard, the communities depicted a representative target population for the fundamental information nee ded.

The Psychological Context of Bystanders Apathy Case Study

The Psychological Context of Bystanders Apathy - Case Study Example The major point of the discussions was the behavior the witnesses showed during such a terrible incident. But questions arise in the psychological context as to how these witnesses perceived the scenes (the cognitive aspect), what are their behaviors in response to what they saw (behaviorist point of view), and what was the reasons for such behaviors (the psychodynamics). In the cognitive viewpoint, Hofstetter (1997) mentioned that the reaction of human beings on a certain event is based on perception, thought, and memory. In this case, the witnesses were looking at the event individually and each one just saw a portion of the event. Judgment on what was currently seen would be based on past events or similar and relevant events. This means that the reaction was based on what had been learned from the past. Since most of the witnesses did not actually saw the brutal part of stabbing, or as one witness analyzed was hitting, they considered it a kind of lover’s quarrel that has no cause for alarm. Only the witnesses that saw the harsh part reacted by shouting and calling the police. The reaction was based on available information and not a show of unconcern. In a psychodynamic point, granting the witnesses really perceived the event unfolding in their eyes was a murder, whether they saw it in part or in whole, the reaction was a result of the feelings not to be involved. Getting involved in such an event would complicate things and therefore being silent means getting away from any responsibilities and burden. There are emotional connections with the decisions not to be involved. It can be fear, anxiety, fatigue, or other factors. This type of bystander’s reactions to a situation differs when they are in a group than when they saw it individually (Silk, 2005)

Leadership & Ethics for Managers week two DB Essay

Leadership & Ethics for Managers week two DB - Essay Example Addiction in this case comprises salary/wage, which I get from my work because there is no other alternative currently available. I will feel different because the drive behind my motivation to work more than required descends from the love and passion of the setting as well as the kind of task I am undertaking. Liking the kind of task, I am undertaking comes from one’s favorable environment, which respective authorities or corporation has ensured for its workers such that they are capable of enjoying while working. This implies I am not putting up with the setting in order to meet my goal, which is earning much money to sustain me in life. Have you ever considered that this is an issue of perception? In other words, we view people who like to work a lot as not following what is â€Å"right† – which often means having a perfect balance between a work life and personal life. Yes. Since much of their work encompasses thinking about work to the extent when they are not working or out of their working environment, most of the time one feels uncomfortable (Burke & Cooper, 2010). Mostly, while out of their working environment tend to think they are failing the corporation, which desperately needs their contribution to succeed (Burke & Cooper,

Prescriptive Design Models Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Prescriptive Design Models - Essay Example Pahl & Beitz (1988) developed the systematic approach in design, and divided the flow of work into four distinct steps. According to Pahl and Beitz, the first and initial stage in prescriptive design is clarification of the task. This entails collecting enough materials regarding information of the project, the requirements of the specific design, and the constraints to be faced in the actual design work. These stages will prepare a learner psychologically by offering the background information regarding the design, what they are actually required to do and the limits in terms of requirements and the scope of the actual design. The second stage according to this model would be the conceptual design. This process as Pahl & Beitz explain involves establishing functional structures, searching for the most suitable and viable solution principles and combining these to form a concept or design alternatives. This approach broadens a learner’s approach to have various ways in which t hey may approach the design process by understanding the component better through its functional dimension, and broadening the concept to find other design alternatives. According to Pahl & Beitz, after understanding the functionality of the component and having several design approaches, the next step would be the embodiment design.

Final exam Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Final exam - Article Example as such, thse activities enables a financial organization determine how its financial support assists the public health agency in conducting its daily activities, as well as determine how best the agency maximizes the availed funds These professionals have a common set of competencies, which include professional judgment, Interprofessional collaboration, leadership, management skills, cultural safety, advocacy, political awareness, social responsibility, compassionate, competence and ethical professional practice. these competencies enable these professionls to discharge their duties profeciently and without personal biases. Four core leadership theories relevant in public health are trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories, and power and influence theories. The trait theory is most common as it states every effective leader shares common characteristic traits The main challenge to the reduction of tobacco usage is addiction whereby smokers get addicted to the nicotine contained in the tobacco. The best way to reduce this challenge is to educate smokers on the negative effects of nicotine to their bodies, as well as rehabilitation of addict smokers Observation of appropriate hygiene when handling, preparing and serving food is the best approach to curb and contain food borne hygiene, as well as personal hygiene of the persons preparing, handling, serving and eating these foods. furthermore, hand washing plays a very imperative role to the control and management of the spread of such diseases, especially before handling food or eating. Global warming causes an increase in greenhouse gases within the atmosphere, which can lead to respiratory complications. However, global warming can be beneficial to the elderly because it causes warmer winters thereby eliminating their risk of freezing to death Oral diseases are highly communicable as one patient can pass it to another through the air, such as

2. How useful are psychological motivation theories in explaining Essay

2. How useful are psychological motivation theories in explaining behaviour in organizations - Essay Example For an effective employee, management and leadership in the workplace, there is need for understanding human nature. This is what motivational theories help the management do. These theories fall under four categories i.e. need-based theories, job based theories, cognitive process theories and the behavioural approach. These theories together provide significant insight about human behaviour thus helping managers to comprehend and motivate workers thereby improving productivity. These theories attempt to explain work motivation in terms of the extent to which employees fulfil their needs in the workplace. One important theory that falls under this category is the Maslow hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s studies about human motivation led him to establish a theory of need based on the hierarchical chain with basic needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top (Dye, Mills & Weatherbee, 2005). His emphasis was that most people are motivated by the desire to satisfy a specific group of needs. These needs are: Physiological needs which include food, shelter, clothing, sleep, sex etc. Safety or security needs which comprise of the needed for a stable environment free from threats and social needs with regard to one’s relationship with others and status within a group. Self esteem needs which comprise of the need for self respect, self esteem and the esteem of others. Self actualisation needs which simply refer to the need for fulfilment. An organisatio n can meet some of these needs through simple exercises like giving employees adequate breaks for meals, adequate salaries to cater for their families, encouraging team work to achieve their social needs and giving them challenging assignments to allow them to be creative at their work. Maslow believed that human beings tend to satisfy their needs systematically starting with the basic psychological needs and then moving up the hierarchy. A person’s behaviour will be

Parent education Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Parent education - Research Paper Example The failure of many adults to succeed is rooted in the poor parenting skills of those who raised them, therefore society should insist that parenting courses be a requirement of those who are pregnant, both the mother and father of the child, so that the needs of society can best be served by the actions of the parents. A society has the right and the obligation to define how its members will interact within the ideological framework of its culture. One of the biggest problems in the United States is that most people do not have generations of ancestors who came before them on which to base their cultural belief systems. Therefore, the way in which parents pass their heritage to their children is often convoluted and without social structure, the design of the community not based upon generations of cultural belief systems, but a patchwork of concepts that do not inform those who are trying to find a way to raise their children on exactly what is best in regard to their future.

Week 6 Discussion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week 6 Discussion - Coursework Example On the other hand, it may be rather difficult to implement the idea of global standards for Ethics, since by doing so the humanity will utilize one size fits all approach and will not take into account diversity of cultures (Makau, 1997, 155). It is quite obvious that in this case the world will lose a considerable part of its uniqueness. Having examined the two contradicting approach, is it possible for suggest that global standards can not be implemented in the realm of Ethics? The reality shows that they can be, but with a significant reservation. Business ethics might be seen as a way to combine the above mentioned aspects. Indeed, it will make sure that companies around the world have adopted the same quality levels (Sullivan, 2012, 141). In addition to that, it will allow countries who value their traditions separate business affairs from other social interaction (Dunfee, 1993,

Life science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Life science - Essay Example In the virtual education, mentors and students are not required to collaborate personally in a room (Christensen). Virtual education is particularly a blessing for individuals who can not make it to the institution. For example, young mothers with infants can often not manage to find time for attending the educational institution regularly. Likewise, working people often spare their academic progress because of work. With the facility of distance education at hand, people have been able to manage studies with work. They do not have to spare work in order to continue with their studies. Instead, they can maneuver their schedule to study after or before work as appropriate. The virtual world has diminished the significance of physical limitations and boundaries, while the quality of education has been maintained, rather enhanced in the virtual world as students can repeatedly attend the same lectures until concepts are clear. â€Å"While the lectures and assignments are preplanned and may be viewed multiple times, the student still has access to the instructor† (Tatum). I feel connected to the science through virtual education. Works cited: Christensen, Tricia E. â€Å"What is virtual education?† 2011. Web. 4 Feb. 2011. .

Corporate Finance System of Vodafone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Corporate Finance System of Vodafone - Essay Example Figure 10 Dividend payment of Vodafone as a percentage of net profit/loss (Source: Money.CNN.com) Figure 11 Dividend payment of AT&T as a percentage of net profit/loss (Source: Money.CNN.com) Figure 12 Dividend payment of Verizon & BT as a percentage of net profit/loss (Source: Money.CNN.com) Figure 13 Total Current Assets of Vodafone (Source: CNN Money) Figure 14 Total Current Liabilities of Vodafone (Source: CNN Money) Figure 15 Current Ratio of Vodafone Figure 16 Cash Ratio of Vodafone Figure 17 Total Assets and Total Liabilities of Vodafone (Source: CNN Money) Figure 18 Vodafone's withdrawal from committed facilities in 2004, 2005 and 2006 (Source: Vodafone Annual Report 2008. pp57) 1.0 Executive Summary This report is a comprehensive analysis of the corporate finance system of Vodafone. The analytics presented here is based on the published information by Vodafone on their corporate website and independent market information about the organisation from global financial analysis organisations. Overall, Vodafone is a large group with multiple legal entities. However, the CEOs of all the legal entities report to the group Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) manages consolidated finance for the group. The analysis presented herewith is pertaining to the consolidated finance of entire group and not of their individual legal entities. The entire analysis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter deals with the background information about the company whereby their corporate objectives, details about finance division, sources of finance, shareholder analysis, and corporate governance have been presented in brief. In the second chapter, the systematic and unsystematic risks associated with Vodafone and... The first chapter deals with the background information about the company whereby their corporate objectives, details about finance division, sources of finance, shareholder analysis, and corporate governance have been presented in brief. In the second chapter, the systematic and unsystematic risks associated with Vodafone and the global telecommunications industry as whole. The risk reports have been taken from Ernst and Young's assessment of global telecommunications industry risks, Deloitte's report on Vodafone's risks (published on the website of Vodafone) and the 2008 annual report of Vodafone. In the third chapter, the Capital Structure of Vodafone and have compared the same with old theories that have been accepted by accounting community largely. The Debt to Equity ratio of Vodafone is compared with similar companies in the telecommunications industry and the results are analyzed. The last part of this chapter deals with application of dividend payment theories in these companies. In the fourth chapter, the empirical theories of Working Capital management of firms and the usage of Money Markets has been presented with the help of literature review. Thereafter, the working capital management of Vodafone and their usage of money market instruments have been analyzed.

See information below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

See information below - Essay Example The frustration of being just two credits shy of graduation and newly married is touched on briefly, but is an important fact that helps clarify his frustration. As he takes us on his journey into the horrors of war, we begin to see a pattern of disorganization from those in authority, and vague answers to the young men's questions about their return home. One incident underscores this disorganization clearly. On a mission to a local Iraqi bank, two soldiers are left standing guard outside. While the rest of the group is inside the bank enjoying a precious few moments in air conditioning, insurgents fire upon the two men outside. One of the men is shot very seriously in the neck. Trying to get medevac to the scene proves to be the most difficult part of the incident. It seems commanding officers and their staff, do not leave the compound. Tracking the exact location of the bank and dispatching the appropriate help becomes a source of frustration for the men on the scene. What is tell ing in this scene is not that the two men were fired upon, but the slow and disorganized response from their commanding officers. The promise of going home is held in front of the men frequently throughout the story only to be withheld from them over and over again. They are told, 'just keep up the work a little longer. We'll be home soon.'(Crawford 19) The commanding officers seem unconcerned with the stress and fatigue that these men are facing, and only seem concerned with their own plans of glory and recognition.The imagery that Crawford uses gives us a land that is as bleak and unwelcoming as his first descriptions of the storm. We see a country decimated by war and it's citizens living in squalor. "The building was full of rotting feces. Piles of it, along with MRE toilet paper, littered the floor. The heat had turned the building into an oven, and the smell was overpowering."(Crawford 32) The gritty descriptions of crumbling buildings and human waste flowing in the streets fill the pages and lend to the feeling of a complete breakdown of a society.Interwoven through the stories of fear and exhaustion th ere are some moments of humor that remind the reader that these are ordinary men thrown into extraordinary circumstances. They are trying desperately to hang on to a sense of normalcy in an alien world. The story of Cum, a homeless Iraqi child, and his friendship with Crawford clearly display the overall feeling of desperation. While the story is told in a dispassionate way, the sense that the boy meant a great deal to Crawford is apparent based on his statement that they talked for hours without understanding each other's language. Without language to join them they manage to forge a friendship based on the child's innocent and eager nature. Eventually because of Iraqi attitudes toward Americans, something happens to the child. What that something is, is never made clear, but Crawford's guilt over the incident is palpable.The frequent mention of drugs seems to be another desperate attempt to escape the situation that he finds himself. One incident has a medic injecting Crawford wit h morphine just for the sleep the drug will allow him. Crawford spends a day in bed after the morphine

International Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

International Environment - Assignment Example The achievement of independence in India was followed by the implementation of mixed economic system for growth and development in long run. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the new mixed economic system was introduced with the aim of developing both private and public sectors. However, in contrast neo-liberal policy focuses on replacing the old mixed economic system with developing private sectors respectively. The neo-liberal policies further facilitates global governing authorities of other nations to bring changes to the neoliberal policies of India respectively (World Bank, 2015). The importance of this study is to understand the concept of neo-liberalism and its differences with the other economic policies as well as its effects on the society. Additionally, the study will outline the effects of neo-liberalism in India and its contribution in growth and development. Furthermore, the paper examines the impact of neo-liberal policy on social, cultural and economic poli cy of India.The concept of ‘Neo-Liberalism’ is associated with approach in economic theories where shift in economic factors can be observed between private sectors as well as public sectors with the aim of enhancing the position of the economy. However, the neo-liberalism policy mainly focuses on the private sector rather than public. The implementation of the new-liberalism policy within the economy enables the government minimise the shortage of monetary resources, amount of loans provided to organisations as subsidies

The Kings Speech Essay Example for Free

The Kings Speech Essay Question 1: In the sessions with Lionel, he asked Bertie what was his past like because there was a reason for being afraid to speak publicly. He told Lionel that when he was a young boy he used to get teased a lot because he shuddered a lot and his father also encouraged it, especially when it came to his brother. His father didn’t pay attention to him it went more towards his brother. Also, he grew up with metal splints in his knees so he could have straight knees. These experiences changed his life by feeling insecure about himself and not being able to talk in front of an audience would trigger that fact that he used to get teased a lot by his loved one, which changed his whole life. Question 2:Â  It is our divine right to be heard, to persevere, rehearse, and be brave. These things can be very helpful in our lives. We have to learn to be brave and persevere we have to try in order to get it done. Every day we use our divine right to be heard by being in class, answering questions, with friends and communication with just about anyone. Question 3:Â  When the King was practicing giving speeches in public I saw that he concentrated or relaxed himself by swaying his feet back and forth, taking deep breaths, eventuating words, practicing an hour a day and having support from his wife. These things can be helpful if someone was afraid of speaking in public because it helps you focus and keep calm once you have started your speech. In our speech class we have a strong support system, our own classmates, which make us feel comfortable speaking in front of them, which helps us during our speech.

Different Styles of Imitation Essay Example for Free

Different Styles of Imitation Essay In The Transmission of Knowledge by Juan Luis Vives, Vives describes his idea of proper imitation. His basic theory is that people are not innately born with skills of art or rhetoric and therefore, these skills are obtained through the imitation of other skilled artists or rhetoricians. This idea is parallel to those of Petrarch and Alberti. Petrarch and Vives both say that proper imitation should be analogous to the way a son resembles his father. Vives says A son is said to be like his father, not so much in that he recalls his features, his face and form, but because shows to us his fathers manners, his disposition, his talk, his gait, his movements, and as it were his very life, which issues forth in his actions as he goes abroad, from the inner seat of the spirit, and shows his real self to us. (190) Petrarch says, similarly, As soon as we see the son, he recalls the father to us, although if we should measure every feature we should find them all different.(199) The father to son resemblance is the basis of imitation to both these authors. They both believe that a good writer should use imitation in a way where what they imitate resembles the original, but does it not duplicate it. For Petrarch and Vives, this can be achieved by properly integrating reading with writing. They both believe that by reading something and being able to digest it thoroughly, one can transport the overall idea and feeling of what he read onto his own writing. This creates a deep imitation, rather than copying what a writer says in different words. Both authors use the father to son metaphor to show that imitation should be meaningful and evocative. Petrarch supplements this idea by claiming that reading should be an alterative to experience. As one would in a sense experience the father through the son, one should similarly be able to experience the author a writer imitates. To illustrate this he referrers to wandering and transport throughout his works. Specifically, Petrarch interchanges writing with experience when he describes climbing Mont Ventroux. He says But nature is not overcome by a mans devices; a corporeal thing cannot reach the heights by descending and, further, there I leaped in my winged thought from things corporeal to what is incorporeal and addressed myself in words like these (39) The physical and spiritual are linked so closely together that they transport and overlap one another. According to Petrarch, characteristics like this are traits of a good imitator. Vives also relates to the kind of imitation which interchanges the bodily action with spiritual. He describes an oration, which links actions with rhetoric. He says But these modern imitators regard not so much the mind of the orator in his expression, as the outward appearance of his words and the external for of his style. (191) Both writers believe that by interchanging techne which psyche, one can properly imitate and transcend a deeper significance of what the writer is imitating. Although Petrarch and Vives share similar ideas, they also hold a contradictory belief: Petrarch only imitates Cicero, while Vives believes that one should imitate several models to create a single work. Although Vives clearly states that Cicero is the best model for writing in the conversational style: Caesar and Epistles of Cicero will come into the first rank of conversational style, (192) he also states that one should comprise writing by mimicking several writers: The more models we have and the less likeness there is between them, the greater is the progress of eloquence. (190) Foremost, Petrarch is not writing in the conversational style, instead he using the plain style. Therefore, he should mimic another writer from the list Vives has specified. Also, Petrarch is only interested in imitating one writer, Cicero. He defends the Ciceronian tradition by writing only in Ciceros style. For this reason, Petrarch does not read other writers, like Dante, because he is afraid that he will become the product of what he reads, ideas and style. Instead he immerses himself in Ciceros style by reading his work in such depth that he essentially writes in Ciceros style without knowing he is doing so. Vives respects Ciceros work, but he does not believe that Cicero is the best writer. Other than Vives belief that Petrarch should have imitated several conversationalists, Vives also states that imitation of Ciceros work is useful and safe, but not of his style; for if anyone cannot achieve success in the attempt he will degenerate into redundant, nerveless, vulgar and plebeian kind of writer. (191) Therefore, the difference between Vives and Petrarch is that Vives believes that one should imitate several writers and that Cicero is not the best writer. Further, he offers a list of writers which should be imitated when trying to achieve a certain style. Petrarch, on the other hand, writes in Ciceros style and believes that Cicero should be imitated while engaging in every kind of writing. Alberti was an author who was more like Vives in this sense. He also believed that one should embrace all the things which would make something beautiful into one. For example, he says that all arts are linked to painting somehow, and that all arts take from incorporate the skills associated with painting into their works: The architect, if I am not mistaken, takes from the painter architraves, bases, capitals, columns, faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ades and other similar things. All the smiths, sculptors, shops and guilds are governed by the rules and art of the painter. It is scarcely possible to find any superior art which is not concerned with painting. so that whatever beauty is found can be said to be born of painting .(Book II) Furthermore, it was important to Alberti to imitate the laws of nature, rather than nature itself. He pointed out that an architect should mimic the structure of reality and the geometry hidden in reality. Like Vives and Petrarch, Alberti joined the bodily with the spi ritual to create the perfect art. But, he resembles Vives, in the sense that he believes that one should imitate several things to create one thing. One difference between Alberti and Vives is that Vives believes that one should start out imitating a person who is not the best at what he does, but someone who is better than the imitator. Eventually, according to Vives, one should be able to move up in rank and imitate the best. He says it is a wise precept of M. Fabius Quintilian that boys should not at first attempt to rise to emulation of their master, lest their strength fail them. An easier and quicker method will be to let them imitate someone more learned than themselves among their fellows, and contending with him let them gradually rise to copying their master himself. (189) Alberti does not mention this method of imitation. Instead he says that when it comes to art, on must have the favors of nature. (Book I) In other words, Alberti strongly believes that one should have a natural talent for what he is doing, and that the gradual chain of improvement is not necessarily an established method, as Vives indicates. Also, Alberti uses a style that is short and to the point. He says I beg that I may be pardoned if, where I above all wish to be understood, I have given more care to making my words clear than ornate. I believe that which follows will be less tedious to the reader. (Book I) This type of frankness is a distinguished style of writing. He uses simple rhetoric so that his audience can grasp the idea quickly. This kind of style corresponds to the type of art he is writing about. He says that he writing about a new type of art: We are, however, building anew an art of painting about which nothing, as I see it, has been written since this age.(Book II) His new style is imitating his concept of having a different type of manual towards art. Also, his main is to gear away from the Ancients and more towards the Florentine. By changing his style of writing he is achieving this, not only through what he saying about graduating art from mechanical to liberal, but also through his style and techne. Both Alberti and Vives spend time discussing subject matter. Vives splits up who should be imitated based on the subject of the piece being writer. Similarly, Alberti pays attention to the subject matter of the painting. He says that an image can only bring pleasure of the subject matter of the painting brings pleasure. Alberti believes that one must imitate the feeling he wants the viewer to have in the subject of his painting for the artwork to be successful. This is what Vives is saying when he illustrates that one must pick the best writer in the subject that he wants to write about and imitate that style to be successful. Both Petrarch and Alberti can be compared with Vives and his ideas on imitation. To all three writers imitation plays a huge role on how to present written and artistic works. All three of them believe that imitation of others will lead to success. Further, they believe that imitation is the only way to learn how to write properly. Alberti adds another assumption: he says that to be the best, one must imitate, but before the imitation process takes place, one must have a natural talent for art. Petrarch and Alberti both believe that one must mimic what they believe is the right tradition through their styles. Petrarch believes in the Ciceronian tradition and follows in Ciceros footsteps by imitating his style. Alberti is more concerned with understanding than the use of eloquent language. Overall, to all three writers imitation plays a huge role in their understanding of how written works influence their audiences.

Matza’s (1964) Delinquency and Drift

Matza’s (1964) Delinquency and Drift David Matza’s work is often is said to have offered a necessary counteraction to the postulates of the subcultural theory (Young: 1974). In 1957 David Matza and Gersham Sykes presented a radically new theory of deviant behaviour in their seminal work entitled, Techniques of Neutralisation: A Theory of Delinquency and again collaborated in 1961. The dialogue was significantly extended by Matza in his subsequent works, Delinquency and Drift (1964) and Becoming Deviant (1969). This paper will provide a description and evaluation of Matza’s theories. It will then proffer a brief discussion on why Matza’s writings on crime presents a shift from traditional subcultural theories. Matza’s work shows a rethink about deviants and how they process and rationalize their crime. He questions the notion that deviants are inherently opposed to societal norms and codes of conduct, and that their actions signify a rejection of the rule of law. He maintains that delinquent values do not necessarily follow a consistent continuum, and therefore to say that delinquency and deviants reject the rule of law is erroneous. He uses the examples of teenage delinquents to demonstrate that while many teenagers commit delinquent acts, many do not offend within a delinquent space or a delinquent subculture. He argues that many times they can immediately return to continuous actions which demonstrate affinity with â€Å"normalcy†. In these instances, Matza argues that instead of being in opposition to the rule of law, some acts of delinquency represent a loosening or distance from more positively favoured and consensus value systems to an adoption of what he terms â€Å" subterranean† values. Matza and Sykes (1961) differentiated between subterranean values and formal or mainstream values to highlight this point. Matza identifies formal values as those which demonstrate deferred gratification, can be predictable, respect bureaucratic processes, not aggressive, and conforms to the normal routine. They also have an introspective characteristic which refrains from euphoria, plans meticulously, shows reservation and restraint, and is non-impulsive. Conversely, subterranean values are identified as: relishing short term hedonism and excitement, always seeking change and alternatives, impulsive, very sociable and carefree, and is not afraid to display to aggression. Within this framework, Matza defends his argument by stating that deviants who accept subterranean values usually accentuate these characteristics for short term personal gains, or during leisure periods. Taylor et al (1973) suggests that Matza’s work (1964) represents an attempt to avoid distorting the motivations of the delinquent and to present a naturalistic analysis of deviant behaviour. Matza contends that theories which strive to label some deviants and establish sub-cultures of deviance, overstate the levels of delinquency and are a result of positivistic influences which attempt to find psycho-social reasons for non-conformity. He articulates that it is flawed to assume delinquent subcultures are zealously embraced by deviants, furthermore, he points out that this intermittent interaction with subterranean values is normal because these values are replicated many times throughout society, albeit most times in controlled environments. He argues that traditional positivistic models of deviance, depict an â€Å"antagonistic disjunction between deviant or subterranean values of larger society† (Taylor et al: 1973) which is simply not true. Instead he argues that dev iants use techniques of neutralization as excuses for committing delinquent acts. Matza identified five techniques of neutralization employed by deviants to rationalize their non-conformity: (1) Denial of responsibility , wherein, the offender deflects blame with language such as â€Å"it was not my fault† or â€Å"it wasn’t really me who did it†. The deviant attributes their actions to the flaws of the wider substructure or environment. (2) Denial of injury, where the delinquent defends their actions on the grounds that it did not cause harm to anyone and substitutes moralistic condemnation on their actions with more favorable terminologies. For example, vandalism would be seen as â€Å"just mischief†. (3) Denial of a victim, where they place the victim as the offender in language such as â€Å"they had it coming† or â€Å"it didn’t affect them†. (4) Appeal to higher loyalties, where the delinquent places himself as torn between two groups with a need to commit the act in the interest of one group. A typical exampl e can be found with foreign national women who do transnational drug couriering, who mostly say they do it because of the economic needs of their children. (5) Condemnation of the condemners, where the offender deflects focus from their actions to chastise the motives of those who condemn the offending act. Those who condemn are usually classified by the deviant as hypocrites. Matza’s (1964) Drift Theory attempts to situate the deviant in a less deterministic space than positivistic influenced theories allow. He suggested that persistent delinquent behaviour can be explained by a convergence of subterranean values and formal ones, in the absence of stabilizing forces which reinforce the more moralistic formal values. The slow movement from formal and introspective values to more permanent subterranean characteristics is called a â€Å"drift†. In their period of drift, Matza contends that delinquents utilise the neutralizing techniques previously discussed, to weaken society’s grasp on their value system. He is however, not without his critics, who point out that Matza underplay offending behaviour and neglects to use his theory as a lens for more violent forms of delinquency (Newburn: 2007). Matza’s reasoning presents a shift from traditional subcultural theory which is more deterministic in its labelling and examination of deviants. Subculture theory contends that there are dominant cultures and deviant subcultures and they situate the deviant within the latter, because of their non-conformity. Subcultural theory romanticize the dominant culture as always existing within a positive moral space. It sees delinquency as a complete opposition to mainstream values and culture. Matza, on the other hand, advocates that delinquents do place value on mainstream cultures, but may refrain from displaying or voicing such views because they fear rejection from peers. He contends that subterranean values exist alongside those of the so-called dominant culture. This argument was partly sanctioned by Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) who proffered the example of the male who is compelled to violence to defend the honour of his mother, wife or children. While, this male is predispose d to accepting the dominant culture, his naturalistic tendency to defend in such situations, point to the co-existence of subterranean, even within mainstream cultures. References Matza, D. (1969) Becoming Deviant. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Matza, D. (1964) Delinquency and Drift. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Matza, D., Sykes, G. (1961) Juvenile Delinquency and Subterranean Values. American Sociological Review Vol. 26, 713-719. Newburn, T. (2007) Criminology. Cullompton: Willan. Sykes, G., Matza, D. (1957) Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency. American Sociological Review, Vol. 22, 664-670. Taylor, I., Walton, P. Young, J. (1973) The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance. London: Routledge. Wolfgang, M., Ferracuti, F. (1967) The Subculture of Violence. London: Travistock Publishers. Young, J. (1974) New Directions in Subcultural Theory. In, John Rex (ed) Approaches to Sociology: An Introduction to Major Trends in British Sociology. London: RKP. 1

Minimal Intervention Minimally Invasive Dentistry Health And Social Care Essay

Minimal Intervention Minimally Invasive Dentistry Health And Social Care Essay Dentistry has very much shifted from an invasive to a more conservative approach over the years. This is due to an extended understanding of the nature of the disease and its process and discovering more effective methods of treatment instead of the traditional cut, drill and fill technique. Hence, the concept of minimally invasive and minimal intervention dentistry is now gaining popularity in modern dentistry. Minimal intervention is a modern medical approach to the treatment of caries focusing on prevention and detection of dental diseases at the earliest stage to avoid invasive treatment. When surgical intervention is necessary, minimally invasive techniques are being used widely to conserve as much tooth structure as possible and reduce risk of tooth fracture and pulpal problems. The minimally interventive approach involves reduction of cariogenic bacteria. It uses preventive measures such as topical fluorides, fissure sealants and patient education on oral hygiene. Early lesions are remineralised by non-interventive management, such as fluoride ions in saliva. The surgery carried out if necessary is minimally invasive and uses adhesive materials such as glass ionomer cements and adhesive composite systems. Innovative, modified cavity designs are used with possibly no drilling such as ART techniques. The resurgence of air abrasive technology with newer restorative materials has given a new dimension to minimally invasive dentistry. The micro-mechanical bonding of the restoration to the tooth structure through maximum preservation of healthy tooth structure negates the need to follow conventional G.V. Black cavity design parameters. Firstly, the difference between minimal intervention dentistry and minimally invasive dentistry need to be pointed out. Minimal intervention can be defined as a philosophy of professional dental care, with emphasis on early detection and earliest possible cure of the carious disease. This is followed by minimally invasive dentistry, which is the conservation of healthy tooth structure by using techniques that are patient friendly and cause minimal damage to the dental tissue and focuses on repair of irreversible damages caused by the disease and remineralisation.1 The concept of minimally invasive treatment emerged in dentistry in the early 1970s. One of the early examples of this is the application of diamine silver fluoride, which arrests the carious process and prevents the formation of any new caries. The silver ions in the diamine silver fluoride kill pathogenic organisms. Application is simple, cost effective and does not require any complex training to carry out.2 Several other examples are the development of preventive resin restorations (PRR) that were introduced in the 1980s, atraumatic restorative treatment (ART) which is the treatment of caries using only hand instruments and restoring with an adhesive filling material such as glass ionomer cement, and Carisolv in the 1990s which is a chemo-mechanical method that is efficient at removing carious dentine.3 The fundamental components of minimally invasive dentistry are the risk assessment of the disease; paying particular attention on early detection and prevention of caries, remineralisation of the enamel and dentine, use of a wide range of restorative materials and techniques that cause minimal intervention and resorting to surgery only if absolutely necessary. The following definition can be used to summarise the different aspects of minimally invasive dentistry: the maintenance and monitoring of oral health through continuous care, comprising comprehensive preventive management, a longitudinal approach to risk assessment and diagnosis of chronic disease, and a minimally interventive approach to any necessary operative intervention.4 Minimally invasive dentistry is not only restricted to the management of caries. The concept can be used in various dental applications such as the treatment of periodontal conditions, wear of teeth through erosion and attrition and management of chronic oral mucosal diseases such as xerostomia. The patient is very much involved in this type of approach to preserve and maintain their dentition and oral health. The patient takes responsibility for the daily care of their mouth and to control and prevent the risk of developing disease or progression of existing disease to the best of their ability. To do this, patients must have a good understanding of the disease process and know what to do to maintain good oral health and should be consistently motivated by members of the dental team. (REWORD FULLY)Minimal intervention suggests remineralisation of any enamel margin that is not yet cavitated as well as remineralisation of the lesion floor to avoid irritation of the pulp. Demineralised enamel around the margin of the lesion will be restored during the stabilisation phase of treatment aimed at elimination of the disease through application of fluoride. The floor of the lesion will be remineralised through the placement of a glass-ionomer cement for the restoration and this, at the same time will seal the margins against microleakage.14 The minimally invasive approach has been described by Tyas and co-workers as follows: Early caries diagnosis The classification of caries depth and progression using radiographs An assessment of individual caries risk Reduction in cariogenic bacteria, in order to decrease the risk of further demineralisation The arresting of active lesions The remineralisation and monitoring of non-cavitated arrested lesions The placement of restorations with minimal cavity designs Repair rather than replacement of defective restorations Assessment of disease management outcomes at regular intervals13 Patient Motivation (CUT EDIT COMPLETELYYYYYY) Preventive care is the foundation for minimally invasive dentistry. Preventive care is an essential factor of the minimal invasion technique, but is reliant on the patient carrying out effective oral hygiene techniques. The motivation for this is most likely to stem from educating the patient about the carious process so that they understand the importance of maintaining good oral health. The most active method of doing this is likely to be actual demonstration of the carious process to patients as such stimulation is likely to show them the full effects, and encourage them to take part in preventive care on their own. An important factor to take into account is that each patient will have a different caries risk and assessment of this risk is necessary before treatment can take place. Caries risk is much more significant if there has been previous history of caries risk. In fact the best way of addressing treatment, in my opinion is to use the risk score assessment method, treatment by this method ensures that management of the disease is specialist to the patient, so that the results are the most successful. A risk score is worked out and used to manage the disease in a specialised way based on the individual patient. Several different caries treatment techniques will be discussed. Firstly, Caries Management by Risk Assessment (CAMBRA), developed by Featherstone in university of San Francisco, This tool provides not only the assessment mechanism but also a set of interventions tailored to the disease level predicted.- havent changed words around!! Secondly, the technique of DIAGNOdent is lesion specific and detect lesions Some types of caries detection tools are lesion-specific and detect lesions at their earliest stages. DIAGNOdent is very useful in detecting demineralisation on certain surfaces, particularly the occlusal surfaces of teeth. Prevention stems from patient motivation to carry out effective oral hygiene techniques at home and maintain good oral health. Educating patients about dental caries in addition to talking about cavities is an important factor in motivating the patient as when they have a better understanding of the carious process they are more inclined to maintain good oral health to prevent such disease. The ability to demonstrate the caries process to patients might be the best motivational tool. If patients could see the process actually happening before cavitation occurs, they might be more likely to practice appropriate oral hygiene methods at home. It is first necessary to assess the patients caries risk. One of the most important predictors of caries risk is the history of caries. Featherstone and colleagues at the University of California, San Francisco have developed and tested a caries assessment tool called. This tool provides not only the assessment mechanism but also a set of interventions tailored to the disease level predicted. Some types of caries detection tools are lesion-specific and detect lesions at their earliest stages. DIAGNOdent is very useful in detecting demineralisation on certain surfaces, particularly the occlusal surfaces of teeth. DIFOTI which stands for digital imaging fibre optic transillumination uses visable light between and through the teeth to see shadows that might be indicative of caries or other defects in the tooth structure. Quantitative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) scans the entire surface of the tooth and detects caries lesions at their earliest phases. By superimposing the lesion at two separate stages, it can assess the status of remineralisation. This is an example of psychological effect of caries management by risk assessment and early detection. A technology such as QLF allows the patient and practitioner to work together to achieve remineralisation. This empowers the patient and shows them the important of their role combined with professional recommendations in reversing the process before its cavitation stage. (Motivation is key hence patient more likely to follow and successful outcome). An increase in patient awareness of treating disease has developed a new kind of dentistry. Only at such an early stage can the patients focus shift from restorative dentistry to disease management.15 GV Blacks Approach(REWORD REARRANGE ORDER) In 1895, G.V Black introduced the concept of extension for prevention. The principle of extension for prevention is that not only must the lesion be included in the outline, but any adjacent areas not at present carious but likely to do so in the near future should also be included to reduce the risk of subsequent carious recurrence near the cavity margin. The principles of cavity design, as described by G.V. Black underpinned operative dentistry for almost a century. As a consequence of adhesive techniques and new understanding of carious process, Blacks principles have been revisited. Eg: Blacks concept of extension for prevention has been replaced by prevention of extention.17 The preparation of a retentive lock or key in the occlusal aspect of posterior teeth in order to prevent displacement of non-adhesive amalgam restorations result in substantial loss of tooth structure, weakening the tooth. The purely surgical approach to caries control as taught by Black is now recognised as being too invasive and destructive. It is inefficient as it does not eliminate the cause of the disease and also leads to a continuing process of replacement dentistry, enlarging the cavity further. The restoration is subjected to an increasingly heavy load and the tooth gets weaker. The cavity designs proposed by Black required geometric precision with sharp line angles, flat floors and removal of all signs of demineralised tooth structure. The fundamental problem with Blacks classification is that it proposes a cavity design regardless of the size and extent of the lesion. Therefore, there will be a standard amount of tooth structure removed whether it is involved with the disease or not. This results in the cavity preparation being larger that it needs to be. Also extension for prevention increases the areas for access of microbes, resulting in even more tooth structure being removed to remove the secondary caries.18 New Cavity Classification The concept of minimal intervention cavity designs is now being used as a replacement to the traditional Blacks classification. The new classification will identify both the position of a lesion on the exposed crown of a tooth and the extent to which it has progressed. It is not needed to specify a particular design for the cavity that needs to be prepared. (Table 1: Mount GJ, 2009) The above table shows a new cavity classification that has been developed by Graham Mount which takes into account the changes in caries activity so is classified by size as well as site: Site 1 lesions are similar to pit and fissure class I restorations and other defects on smooth enamel surfaces. Site 2 lesions are those at contact areas between any pair of teeth. Site 3 lesions are those originating close to the gingival margin including exposed root surfaces. 13, 14 As the size of the lesion extends so does the complexity of the restoration. The sizes that can be identified are as follows: Size 0 the initial lesion at any site that has not yet had surface cavitation so may be possible to heal it. Size 1 the smallest minimal lesion requiring operative intervention. Size 2 a moderate sized cavity. There is still adequate sound tooth structure to maintain integrity of the remaining crown. Size 3 cavity needs to be modified and enlarged to provide some protection for the remaining crown from the occlusal load. Size 4 cavity is now extensive following loss of a cusp from a posterior tooth or an incisial edge from an anterior.14 Cavity preparation One of the most important aims of minimally invasive techniques is to preserve as much sound tissue as possible. The smaller the cavity preparation, the better the performance of the restoration placed within it. It is important to excavate only the irreparable, diseased enamel and dentine, keeping the cavity as small as possible. The cavity walls have to be modified in order to restore the cavities with a suitable adhesive material that can strengthen and support the remaining tooth structure, promote remineralisation and ideally have antibacterial activity. Any remaining bacteria need to be sealed off so that their nutrient supply is cut off and the carious process is arrested. When carrying out the stages of caries removal, it is imperative to follow a minimally invasive approach, and for this to be successful a good knowledge of the chemistry and handling of dental materials is essential. There are many different approaches for proximal cavity preparation, with focus on preserving as much tooth substance as possible.5 Several techniques will be discussed as followed. Sonic Techniques The sonic oscillating, SONICflex system is used in minimally interventive occlusoproximal preparations. It was developed to cut small proximal cavities and used a high frequent oscillating preparation instruments in an air-driven oscillating handpiece. Damage to adjacent teeth is minimised by the use of safe-sided diamond coated, round ended preparation tips. SONICflex can be used in situations where access is difficult, such as proximal sections. The SONICflex PrepGold and SONICflex PrepCeram instruments are designed for minimally interventive gold and ceramic inlay preparations. Figure 1 preparation with SONICflex Prep Ceram (Wilson NHF, 2007) Figure 2 Preparation with SONICflex Prep Gold (Wilson NHF, 2007) Sonic instrumentation allows proximal beveling with limited risk of damage to the adjacent tooth surfaces.4 Air Abrasion Bioactive Glasses The air abrasion technology was developed by Dr Robert Black in 1945 and was successfully introduced in 1951 with the Airdent air abrasion unit by S.S. White. Air abrasion can be described as a pseudo-mechanical, non-rotary method of cutting hard dental tissue where the tooth surface is bombarded with high velocity desiccated abrasive particles, transferring kinetic energy to the tooth surface, which is micro-chipped away. (REWORD) Studies have shown that bonding of enamel and dentine surfaces that have been prepared with air abrasion are much better than those prepared with conventional carbide burs or acid etching.6 Air abrasion produces no heat, vibration, pressure, pain or noise and extent of hard tissue damage is far less than that accomplished using rotary instruments, therefore making air-abraded hard tissue surface more favourable to adhesive bonding. It works by using a stream of aluminium oxide particles produced from compressed air. The abrasive particles strike the tooth with high velocity and removes a small amount of the tooth structure. Efficiency of removal is relative to the hardness of the tissue or material being removed and the operating parameters of the air abrasion device. (REWORD) A number of parameters such as air pressure, operating distance, powder flow rate, particle size, diameter of the nozzle tip and time of exposure vary the amount of hard tissue removal and depth of penetration. The safety for clinical use of alumina was supported by the fact that the particles are large enough to exceed the upper limit for respirable airborne pollutants.4 Air pressure usually varies from 40 to 160 psi and most common particle sizes are 27 or 50 micrometres in diameter. A high powder flow rate will allow more particles to abrade the tooth faster. Operating distances from the tooth range from 0.5 to 2 mm. Applications of air abrasion include caries removal, removal of superficial enamel defects, detection of pits and fissures, removal of pit and fissure surface stain, preparation of tooth structure for the placement of composites and ceramics, surface preparations of abfractions and abrasions, removal of existing restorations and as an adjunct to the conventional handpiece bur.7 Air polishing is an alternative type of air abrasion that removes plaque and surface stains effectively by using sodium bicarbonate powder instead of alumina. Advantages of air abrasion include majority of patients do not need local anaesthetic, discomfort can be managed by reducing air pressure and patients are less anxious with the sound of air abrasion compared to a turbine drill. Air abrasion has a large number of indications but several contraindications are that it cannot be used to remove large amalgam restorations and is not efficient for removal of gross caries because it does not cut substances that are soft. It also produces a round cavity that is not suitable for preparations requiring sharp margins.13 Bioactive glass particles are recognised for their bone inductive properties and there is evidence that shows that bioglass particles can interact with dentine through the formation of a hydroxyl carbonate apatite layer which can provide an effective interactive seal. Bioglass particles can be used for extrinsic stain removal, desensitisation of exposed cervical dentine, removal of selective demineralised enamel and composite removal. They have the ability of discriminating incipient lesions from sound enamel, treating them selectively and minimally. Chemomechanical Treatment Chemomechanical treatment is a gel-based dentine caries removal system and remains the least interventive approach to the removal of carious dentine. Carisolv gel is used with this system and has the advantages of limiting the need for anesthesia, preserves dental tissues, reduces the use of rotary instruments and is effective in controlling patient anxiety. Carisolv gel is applied into the cavity and subsequently the carious tissue is removed using specially designed hand instruments. The Carisolv hand instruments scrape away the material dissolved by the gel, hence preserving remineralisable layers of dentine and underlying sound dentine. Carisolv gel consists of a 0.1% hypochlorite-based alkaline gel with amino acids. The mechanism of the gel is that it dissolves infected dentine that has undergone proteolytic breakdown of collagen, causing further collapse of the collagen network for easy removal with hand instruments. The gel has no detrimental effect on healthy, hard dental tissue. Indications include the treatment of anxious patients, root caries and deep lesions of caries.4 Chemomechanical methods of caries removal is considered to be less painful compared to the use of rotary instruments.8 It is a well-accepted method by patients, despite the prolonged time taken to carry out the treatment. It is a self-limiting technique only removing infected dentine so it is not possible to cut away too much of the tooth structure.13 Polymer Cutting Instruments Metal and diamond burs are not able to discriminate between infected and healthy dentine. Polymer instruments have been designed to differentiate between these two structures as it is able to remove softened dentine but cannot cut the hard, healthy dentine. These instruments have the potential to prepare selected cavities without the need for local anaesthesia.9 Sound enamel has a Knoop hardness of approximately 400 and for dentine is 70-90. Carious dentine has a much lower Knoop hardness between 0-30. This allows a cutting instrument with a Knoop hardness of around 50 to be developed, which is halfway between carious and sound dentine. The polymer instrument remains largely intact when removing carious dentine but when it hits sound dentine, it is visably worn away therefore cannot remove or damage the sound dentine. This also means that it does not operatively expose vital odontoblasts and therefore has a limited capacity to cause pain and discomfort. Consequently, it may be possible to complete caries removal without having to use local anaesthesia.10 Stepwise Excavation Atraumatic Restoration Technique (ART) Stepwise excavation and ART are modern applications of the minimally invasive approach of managing deep cavitated carious lesions. Both techniques use simple hand instruments such as excavators to remove the necrotic caries-infected dentine and also some caries-affected dentine.5 The reasons for using hand instruments instead of electric rotating handpieces is that it requires minimal cavity preparation that conserves sound tooth tissues and cause less trauma to teeth. Also, the need for local anaesthesia is reduced as the patient will not have to endure as much pain. The stepwise excavation technique involves at different intervals. Carious tissue was removed and a thin layer of calcium hydroxide was placed followed by a temporary restoration. The calcium hydroxides primary purpose is to act as a protective seal of exposed dentine surface. It is a strong alkali so stimulates secondary dentine formation in very deep cavities. No final excavation is performed in the first visit. Re-entry and final excavation is made at a later date. There are several variations to the stepwise excavation technique such as Magnusson and Sundell placed a zinc oxide-eugenol cement temporary restoration and carried out the final excavation four to six weeks later. In 1962, Law and Lewis placed calcium hydroxide and an amalgam restoration and re-entry was made six months later. More recently developed ART techniques restore the cavity with chemically adhesive GIC which forms a better seal, instead of the traditional amalgam and also releases fluoride which prevents and arrests caries.5 When the restoration is removed, arrested caries-affected dentine which is darker and harder is exposed and tertiary dentine is also deposited. In the excavation procedure, all the undermining enamel has to be removed to allow easy access to the carious dentine along the enamel-dentine junction. 1 mm of carious dentine is left behind on the pulpal wall and re-entry takes place after a year and the final excavation is carried out. By removing infected dental tissue in deep cavities, excavation is at a very close level to the pulp. By using the stepwise excavation, pulpal exposure is avoided and any pulpal complications are minimised.11 (Figure 3: Bjorndal L, 2008) Figure 3 show the less invasive stepwise excavation procedure. The red zones indicate where plaque is found. A closed lesion environment before first excacation (a) and after (b) followed by application of calcium hydroxide material and a provisional restoration(c). During the treatment interval the demineralized dentine has clinically changed into signs of slow lesion progress, seen by a darker demineralized dentin (d). After final excavation (e) the permanent restoration is made (f).11 Restorative Materials At present there are several restorative materials that are compatible with a minimal interventive philosophy such as resin composites, giomers, ormocers, compomers, resin-modified and traditional glass-ionomer cements. The use of adhesive techniques such as resin composites removes the need of occlusal keys and undercuts, therefore conserving more tooth substance.13 Amalgam (REWORD) Amalgam is one of the oldest direct restorative materials still in use. It is an alloy of several metals including silver, tin, copper, zinc and a small amount of mercury. Amalgam is not compatible with the minimal intervention philosophy despite its proven durability. It requires an undercut to retain the restoration macro-mechanically; hence more tooth structure is removed or damaged, ultimately weakening the remaining tissue. Consequently amalgam is not recommended for the initial management of lesions of caries and where a minimally interventive approach is indicated.(REWORD) It is possible for the amalgam to be bonded to teeth with dentine adhesive systems, reducing the need for undercuts. These are called bonded amalgam restorations. Modern techniques for cavity preparation such as air abrasion are not well suited for the removal of amalgam and there is concern for the levels of mercury released when amalgam is abraded. Air abrasion of amalgam for one minute released mercury vapour four times in excess of the OSHA standard.12 Resin Composites (REWORD COMPLETELY) Resin composites are glass filler particles in a resin matrix. Composites for anterior and posterior teeth require different properties. Materials with a higher filler: resin ratio are recommended for posterior restorations, whereas materials with more resin matrix are used for anterior restorations. This is because materials with a higher filler: resin ratio tend to be stronger, more wear resistant and shrink less when cured. A high concentration of filler particles makes the material more opaque and is more difficult to finish. On the other hand, materials with a higher filler: resin particle ratios are more easily finished and translucent so better suited for anterior teeth restorations. However they shrink more when cured. All resin systems contract on curing. The concept of soft-start polymerisation has been shown to produce better marginal adaptation which may lead to reduced interfacial leakage. Also the net overall shrinkage is less. Composite restorative materials follow the minimally invasive concept as they can be used in conjunction with a dental adhesive system with minimal tooth preparation. Another advantage is that light-curing provides command cure which allows for immediate finishing and polishing. The restoration, if placed correctly in suitably prepared teeth, seals the tooth restorative interface, reducing interfacial leakage. It is possible to add material to cured increments, which allows for incremental build-up and further additions at a later date. Disadvantages include shrinkage typically 2-3% which can disrupt the marginal adaptation of the restoration. Bonding to dentine still remains problematic and water absorption with surface and marginal staining may occur after some years. Flowable composites are used in the repair of marginal defects in restorations and as a liner. They have a low filler: resin ratio and suffer relatively large percentage shrinkage when they are cured, but have the advantage of easy of adaptation to preparations. Compomers Compomers are made predominately from resin composite with the addition of a polyacid-modified molecule, which makes the material more hydrophilic. Compomers are initially light-cured, but subsequently absorb water, allowing for an acid-base reaction to set the polyacid-modified molecule. Initially the material shrinks due to polymerisation contraction but expands subsequently as water is absorbed. Compomers are easy to handle and release fluoride. they are resin-made so a dentine bonding agent is required. Properties are similar to composites but wear and fracture resistance are less than for composite. Glass-Ionomer Cements (GICs) and resin-modifed GIC (RMGICs) GICs are used for cervical restorations, fissure sealants and proximal lesions in anterior teeth. RMGICs are indicated for bonded-base restorations, temporary restorations especially between appointments in endodontic therapy. They are also used in high caries risk patients and atraumatic restoration treatments. GICs not indicated for definitive restorations in adult dentitions expect for the treatment of root caries. The advantages include self-adhesion to the tooth tissue through bio reacting with the tooth surface and the release of fluoride and other ions. They perform well in low-stress areas. It can also be rechargeable, therefore taking up fluoride from the environment.20 The disadvantages of GICs include poor fracture strength and wear rates. They are also quite difficult to handle but this can be overcome by adding resin to create resin-modified glass ionomer cements which is easier to place and has improved aesthetics. Traditional GICs are more opaque and less aesthetic than RMGICs and also cause more marginal chipping. Exogenous stain build-up is common with traditional GICs.20 Giomers Giomers are a relatively new type of restorative material. The name giomer is a hybrid of the words glass ionomer and composite. They have properties of both glass ionomers such as fluoride release and recharge, and of resin composites such as aesthetics and biocompatibility. Therefore the material combines advantages of both materials. The material is composed of prereacted glass-ionomer particles within a resin matrix. Ormocers Ormocer stands for Organically Modified Ceramic. It is a three dimensionally cross-linked copolymer. Their chemistry is based on a polyvinylsiloxane backbone. Ormocers are fully polymerised materials. Ormocers undergoes 1.97% volume shrinkage which is lowest value recorded so far for a resin based filling material. Due to their cross-linking and chemical nature, Ormocers ensure that it is a highly biocompatible filling material. Their advantages compared to conventional composites are outstanding biocompatibility, minimal shrinkage, resistance to masticatory loading and aesthetics resembling natural teeth. Examples of minimally invasive procedures Sealants A Dental sealant is a thin protective covering made of resin that is applied to the chewing surfaces of posterior teeth to prevent the formation of cavities. It is a primary preventive procedure. If the sealant is placed properly it does not require any cutting of the tooth structure. Placement of sealants in suspect teeth within s